Niccolo Machiavelli to the Magnificent Lorenzo de' Medici
It is a frequent custom for those who seek the favor of a prince to make him presents of those things they value most highly or which they
know are most pleasing to him. Hence one often sees gifts consisting of horses, weapons, cloth of gold, precious stones, and similar ornaments
suitable for men of noble rank. I too would like to commend myself to Your Magnificence with some token of my readiness to serve you; and I
have found among my belongings anything I prize so much or value so highly as my knowledge of the actions of men, acquired through long
experience of contemporary affairs and extended reading in those of antiquity. For a long time I have thought carefully about these matters and
examined them minutely; now I have condensed my thoughts into a little volume, and send it to Your Magnificence. My book is not stuffed with
pompous phrases or elaborate, magnificent words, neither is it decorated with any form of extrinsic rhetorical embroidery, such as many authors
use to present or adorn their materials. I wanted my book to be absolutely plain, or at least distinguished only by the variety of the examples and the importance of the subject. I hope it will not be thought presumptuous if a man of low social rank undertakes to discuss the rule of princes and lay down principles for them. When painters want to represent landscapes, they stand on low ground to get a true view of the mountains and hills; they climb to the tops of the mountains to get a panorama over the valleys. Similarly, to know the people well one must be a prince, and to know princes well one must be, oneself, of the people.
On Different Kinds of Troops,Especially Mercenaries
I said before that a prince must lay strong foundations, otherwise he is bound to come to grief. The chief foundations on which all states rest,
whether they are new, old, or mixed, are good laws and good arms. And since there cannot be good laws where there are not good arms, and
where there are good arms there are bound to be good laws, I shall set aside the topic of laws and talk about arms.
Let me say, then, that the armies with which a prince defends his state are either his own or are mercenaries, auxiliaries, or mixed.
Mercenaries and auxiliaries are useless and dangerous. Any man who founds his state on mercenaries can never be safe or secure. The reason is
that they have no other passions or incentives to hold the field, except their desire for a bit of money, and that is not enough to make them die
for you.
Military Duties of the Prince
A prince, therefore, should have no other object, no other thought,no other subject of study, than war, its rules and disciplines; this is the
only art for a man who commands, and it is of such value [virtù] that it not only keeps born princes in place, but often raises men from private
citizens to princely fortune.
On the Reasons Why Men Are Praised or Blamed-Especially Princes
It remains now to be seen what style and principles a prince ought to adopt in dealing with his subjects and friends. I know the subject has been
treated frequently before, and I'm afraid people will think me rash for trying to do so again, especially since I intend to differ in this discussion
from what others have said. But since I intend to write something useful to an understanding reader, it seemed better to go after the real truth of
the matter than to repeat what people have imagined. A great many men have imagined states and princedoms such as nobody ever saw or knew in the real world, for there's such a difference between the way we really live and the way we ought to live that the man who neglects the real to study the ideal will learn how to accomplish his ruin, not his salvation. Any man who tries to be good all the time is bound to come to ruin among the great number who are not good. Hence a prince who wants to keep his post must learn how not to be good, and use that knowledge, or refrain
from using it, as necessity requires. Putting aside, then, all the imaginary things that are said about princes, and getting down to the truth, let me say that whenever men are discussed (and especially princes because they are prominent), there are certain qualities that bring them either praise or blame. Thus some are considered generous, others stingy; some are givers, others grabbers; some cruel, others merciful; one man is treacherous, another faithful; one is feeble and effeminate, another fierce and spirited; one humane, another proud; one lustful, another chaste; one straightforward, another sly; one harsh, another gentle; one serious, another playful; one religious, another skeptical, and so on. I know everyone will agree that among these many qualities a prince certainly ought to have all those that are considered good. But since it is impossible to have and exercise them all, because the conditions of human life simply do not allow it, a prince must be shrewd enough to avoid the public disgrace of those vices that would lose him his state. If he possibly can, he should also guard against vices that will not lose him his state; but if he cannot prevent them, he should not be too worried about indulging them. And furthermore, he should not be too worried about incurring blame for any vice without which he would find it hard to save his state. For if you look at matters carefully, you will see that something resembling virtue, if you follow it, may be your ruin, while something else resembling vice will lead, if you follow it, to your security and well being.
On Cruelty and Clemency: Whether It Is Better to Be Loved or Feared
The question arises: is it better to be loved than feared, or vice versa? I don't doubt that every prince would like to be both; but since it is hard
to accommodate these qualities, if you have to make a choice, to be feared is much safer than to be loved. For it is a good general rule about men,
that they are ungrateful, fickle, liars and deceivers, fearful of danger and greedy for gain. While you serve their welfare, they are all yours, but when
the danger is close at hand, they turn against you. People are less concerned with offending a man who makes himself loved than one who
makes himself feared: the reason is that love is a link of obligation which men, because they are rotten, will break any time they think doing so
serves their advantage; but fear involves dread of punishment, from which they can never escape. Still, a prince should make himself feared in such a way that, even ifhe gets no love, he gets no hate either; because it is perfectly possible to be feared and not hated, and this will be the result if only the prince will keep his hands off the property of his subjects or citizens, and off their women. When he does have to shed blood, he should be sure to have a strong justification and manifest cause; but above all, he should not confiscate people's property, because men are quicker to forget the death of a father than the loss of a patrimony. Returning to the question of being feared or loved, I conclude that since men love at their own inclination but can be made to fear at the inclination of the prince, a shrewd prince will lay his foundations on what is under his own control, not on what is controlled by others. He should simply take pains not to be hated, as I said.
The Way Princes Should Keep Their Word
How praiseworthy it is for a prince to keep his word and live with integrity rather than by craftiness, everyone understands; yet we, see from
recent experience that those princes have accomplished most who paid little heed to keeping their promises, but who knew how craftily to
manipulate the minds of men. In the end, they won out over those who tried to act honestly. You should consider then, that there are two ways of fighting, one with laws and the other with force. The first is properly a human method, the second belongs to beasts. But as the first method does not always suffice, you sometimes have to turn to the second. Thus a prince must know how to make good use of both the beast and the man. Ancient writers made subtle note of this fact when they wrote that Achilles and many other princes of antiquity were sent to be reared by Chiron the
centaur, who trained them in his discipline. Having a teacher who is half man and half beast can only mean that a prince must know how to use
both these two natures, and that one without the other has no lasting effect.
Since a prince must know how to use the character of beasts, he should pick for imitation the fox and the lion. As the lion cannot protect himself from traps, and the fox cannot defend himself from wolves, you have to be a fox in order to be wary of traps, and a lion to overawe the wolves. Those who try to live by the lion alone are badly mistaken. Thus a prudent prince cannot and should not keep his word when to do so would go against his interest, or when the reasons that made him pledge it no longer apply. Doubtless if all men were good, this rule would be bad; but since they are a sad lot, and keep no faith with you, you in your turn are under no obligation to keep it with them.
How a Prince Should Act to Acquire Reputation
Nothing gives a prince more prestige than undertaking great enterprises and setting a splendid example for his people.
A prince ought to show himself an admirer of talent, giving recognition to men of ability and honoring those who excel in a particular
art. Moreover, he should encourage his citizens to ply their callings in peace, whether in commerce, agriculture, or in any other business. The
man who improves his holdings should not be made to fear that they will be taken away from him; the man who opens up a branch of trade should
not have to fear that he will be taxed out of existence. Instead, the prince should bestow prizes on the men who do these things, and on anyone else who takes the pains to enrich the city or state in some special way.' He should also, at fitting times of the year, entertain his people with festivals and spectacles.
The Influence of Luck on Human Affairs and the Ways to Counter It
I realize that many people have thought, and still do think, that events are so governed in this world that the wisdom of men cannot
possibly avail against them, indeed is altogether useless. On this basis, you might say that there is no. point in sweating over anything, we should
simply leave all matters to fate. This opinion has been the more popular in our own times because of the tremendous change in things during our
lifetime, that actually is still going on today, beyond what anyone could have imagined. Indeed, sometimes when I think of it, I incline toward this
opinion myself. Still, rather than give up on our free will altogether, I think it may be true that Fortune governs half of our actions, but that
even so she leaves the other half more or less, in our power to control. I conclude, then, that so long as Fortune varies and men stand still,
they will prosper while they suit the times, and fail when they do not. But I do feel this: that it is better to be rash, than timid, for Fortune is a
woman, and the man who wants to hold her down must beat and bully her. We see that she yields more often to men of this stripe than to those
who come coldly toward her. Like a woman, too, she is always a friend of the young, because they are less timid, more brutal, and take charge of her more recklessly.
Study Questions
Answer the following questions on a separate sheet of paper. Please respond using complete sentences.
1. Why does Machiavelli think that he is fit to offer advice to princes?
2. How important is force in the rule of states?
3. What seems to be Machiavelli's view of human nature?
4. Machiavelli addressed his book to a prince. How do you think this fact shaped the book?
5. Many people believed the The Prince was immoral, and yet it was very widely read. How do you think it might have been useful?
6. Contemporaries saw Machiavelli as a dangerous man. Does The Prince offer any ground for this opinion?
It is a frequent custom for those who seek the favor of a prince to make him presents of those things they value most highly or which they
know are most pleasing to him. Hence one often sees gifts consisting of horses, weapons, cloth of gold, precious stones, and similar ornaments
suitable for men of noble rank. I too would like to commend myself to Your Magnificence with some token of my readiness to serve you; and I
have found among my belongings anything I prize so much or value so highly as my knowledge of the actions of men, acquired through long
experience of contemporary affairs and extended reading in those of antiquity. For a long time I have thought carefully about these matters and
examined them minutely; now I have condensed my thoughts into a little volume, and send it to Your Magnificence. My book is not stuffed with
pompous phrases or elaborate, magnificent words, neither is it decorated with any form of extrinsic rhetorical embroidery, such as many authors
use to present or adorn their materials. I wanted my book to be absolutely plain, or at least distinguished only by the variety of the examples and the importance of the subject. I hope it will not be thought presumptuous if a man of low social rank undertakes to discuss the rule of princes and lay down principles for them. When painters want to represent landscapes, they stand on low ground to get a true view of the mountains and hills; they climb to the tops of the mountains to get a panorama over the valleys. Similarly, to know the people well one must be a prince, and to know princes well one must be, oneself, of the people.
On Different Kinds of Troops,Especially Mercenaries
I said before that a prince must lay strong foundations, otherwise he is bound to come to grief. The chief foundations on which all states rest,
whether they are new, old, or mixed, are good laws and good arms. And since there cannot be good laws where there are not good arms, and
where there are good arms there are bound to be good laws, I shall set aside the topic of laws and talk about arms.
Let me say, then, that the armies with which a prince defends his state are either his own or are mercenaries, auxiliaries, or mixed.
Mercenaries and auxiliaries are useless and dangerous. Any man who founds his state on mercenaries can never be safe or secure. The reason is
that they have no other passions or incentives to hold the field, except their desire for a bit of money, and that is not enough to make them die
for you.
Military Duties of the Prince
A prince, therefore, should have no other object, no other thought,no other subject of study, than war, its rules and disciplines; this is the
only art for a man who commands, and it is of such value [virtù] that it not only keeps born princes in place, but often raises men from private
citizens to princely fortune.
On the Reasons Why Men Are Praised or Blamed-Especially Princes
It remains now to be seen what style and principles a prince ought to adopt in dealing with his subjects and friends. I know the subject has been
treated frequently before, and I'm afraid people will think me rash for trying to do so again, especially since I intend to differ in this discussion
from what others have said. But since I intend to write something useful to an understanding reader, it seemed better to go after the real truth of
the matter than to repeat what people have imagined. A great many men have imagined states and princedoms such as nobody ever saw or knew in the real world, for there's such a difference between the way we really live and the way we ought to live that the man who neglects the real to study the ideal will learn how to accomplish his ruin, not his salvation. Any man who tries to be good all the time is bound to come to ruin among the great number who are not good. Hence a prince who wants to keep his post must learn how not to be good, and use that knowledge, or refrain
from using it, as necessity requires. Putting aside, then, all the imaginary things that are said about princes, and getting down to the truth, let me say that whenever men are discussed (and especially princes because they are prominent), there are certain qualities that bring them either praise or blame. Thus some are considered generous, others stingy; some are givers, others grabbers; some cruel, others merciful; one man is treacherous, another faithful; one is feeble and effeminate, another fierce and spirited; one humane, another proud; one lustful, another chaste; one straightforward, another sly; one harsh, another gentle; one serious, another playful; one religious, another skeptical, and so on. I know everyone will agree that among these many qualities a prince certainly ought to have all those that are considered good. But since it is impossible to have and exercise them all, because the conditions of human life simply do not allow it, a prince must be shrewd enough to avoid the public disgrace of those vices that would lose him his state. If he possibly can, he should also guard against vices that will not lose him his state; but if he cannot prevent them, he should not be too worried about indulging them. And furthermore, he should not be too worried about incurring blame for any vice without which he would find it hard to save his state. For if you look at matters carefully, you will see that something resembling virtue, if you follow it, may be your ruin, while something else resembling vice will lead, if you follow it, to your security and well being.
On Cruelty and Clemency: Whether It Is Better to Be Loved or Feared
The question arises: is it better to be loved than feared, or vice versa? I don't doubt that every prince would like to be both; but since it is hard
to accommodate these qualities, if you have to make a choice, to be feared is much safer than to be loved. For it is a good general rule about men,
that they are ungrateful, fickle, liars and deceivers, fearful of danger and greedy for gain. While you serve their welfare, they are all yours, but when
the danger is close at hand, they turn against you. People are less concerned with offending a man who makes himself loved than one who
makes himself feared: the reason is that love is a link of obligation which men, because they are rotten, will break any time they think doing so
serves their advantage; but fear involves dread of punishment, from which they can never escape. Still, a prince should make himself feared in such a way that, even ifhe gets no love, he gets no hate either; because it is perfectly possible to be feared and not hated, and this will be the result if only the prince will keep his hands off the property of his subjects or citizens, and off their women. When he does have to shed blood, he should be sure to have a strong justification and manifest cause; but above all, he should not confiscate people's property, because men are quicker to forget the death of a father than the loss of a patrimony. Returning to the question of being feared or loved, I conclude that since men love at their own inclination but can be made to fear at the inclination of the prince, a shrewd prince will lay his foundations on what is under his own control, not on what is controlled by others. He should simply take pains not to be hated, as I said.
The Way Princes Should Keep Their Word
How praiseworthy it is for a prince to keep his word and live with integrity rather than by craftiness, everyone understands; yet we, see from
recent experience that those princes have accomplished most who paid little heed to keeping their promises, but who knew how craftily to
manipulate the minds of men. In the end, they won out over those who tried to act honestly. You should consider then, that there are two ways of fighting, one with laws and the other with force. The first is properly a human method, the second belongs to beasts. But as the first method does not always suffice, you sometimes have to turn to the second. Thus a prince must know how to make good use of both the beast and the man. Ancient writers made subtle note of this fact when they wrote that Achilles and many other princes of antiquity were sent to be reared by Chiron the
centaur, who trained them in his discipline. Having a teacher who is half man and half beast can only mean that a prince must know how to use
both these two natures, and that one without the other has no lasting effect.
Since a prince must know how to use the character of beasts, he should pick for imitation the fox and the lion. As the lion cannot protect himself from traps, and the fox cannot defend himself from wolves, you have to be a fox in order to be wary of traps, and a lion to overawe the wolves. Those who try to live by the lion alone are badly mistaken. Thus a prudent prince cannot and should not keep his word when to do so would go against his interest, or when the reasons that made him pledge it no longer apply. Doubtless if all men were good, this rule would be bad; but since they are a sad lot, and keep no faith with you, you in your turn are under no obligation to keep it with them.
How a Prince Should Act to Acquire Reputation
Nothing gives a prince more prestige than undertaking great enterprises and setting a splendid example for his people.
A prince ought to show himself an admirer of talent, giving recognition to men of ability and honoring those who excel in a particular
art. Moreover, he should encourage his citizens to ply their callings in peace, whether in commerce, agriculture, or in any other business. The
man who improves his holdings should not be made to fear that they will be taken away from him; the man who opens up a branch of trade should
not have to fear that he will be taxed out of existence. Instead, the prince should bestow prizes on the men who do these things, and on anyone else who takes the pains to enrich the city or state in some special way.' He should also, at fitting times of the year, entertain his people with festivals and spectacles.
The Influence of Luck on Human Affairs and the Ways to Counter It
I realize that many people have thought, and still do think, that events are so governed in this world that the wisdom of men cannot
possibly avail against them, indeed is altogether useless. On this basis, you might say that there is no. point in sweating over anything, we should
simply leave all matters to fate. This opinion has been the more popular in our own times because of the tremendous change in things during our
lifetime, that actually is still going on today, beyond what anyone could have imagined. Indeed, sometimes when I think of it, I incline toward this
opinion myself. Still, rather than give up on our free will altogether, I think it may be true that Fortune governs half of our actions, but that
even so she leaves the other half more or less, in our power to control. I conclude, then, that so long as Fortune varies and men stand still,
they will prosper while they suit the times, and fail when they do not. But I do feel this: that it is better to be rash, than timid, for Fortune is a
woman, and the man who wants to hold her down must beat and bully her. We see that she yields more often to men of this stripe than to those
who come coldly toward her. Like a woman, too, she is always a friend of the young, because they are less timid, more brutal, and take charge of her more recklessly.
Study Questions
Answer the following questions on a separate sheet of paper. Please respond using complete sentences.
1. Why does Machiavelli think that he is fit to offer advice to princes?
2. How important is force in the rule of states?
3. What seems to be Machiavelli's view of human nature?
4. Machiavelli addressed his book to a prince. How do you think this fact shaped the book?
5. Many people believed the The Prince was immoral, and yet it was very widely read. How do you think it might have been useful?
6. Contemporaries saw Machiavelli as a dangerous man. Does The Prince offer any ground for this opinion?
